Art is a living visual account of contemporary life and tradition, permeating the realms of religion and philosophy. Yet, while discussing religion, philosophy or culture, we tend to take into account only literature as the main narrative and gloss over artistic creations including temples, stupas, sculptures, paintings and other varied forms. Prof. V.S. Agrawala has rightly pointed out that Indian art is a mirror of the thought, religion, philosophy, cults and culture of India. It is a rich commentary on the life of the Indian people. How they worshipped and what they created on the plane of matter is documented in the creation of Indian art [Agrawala, 2003, p. 1]. Indian art is intricately woven into the life of the land is thus capable of reflecting spiritual and ethical values, ideals, and concerns.
The present paper aims at exploring, with examples, some areas of Jaina art and architecture through a conceptual, integrated, and interpretative study with comparative analyses of both literary and archaeological data in the framework of time-space and inter and trans-sectarian concepts.
In its spirit and manifestation Jaina art has always revealed the ethos of Jaina tenets of unceasing respect for and observance of non-violence (ahi?sa), non-acquisition (aprigraha), absolute renunciation (tyaga) and rigorous austerity (sadhana) expressed best through the two customary postures of the artistic representatiopns of the Jinas or Tirtha?karas, namely dhyana (seated cross-legged with both open palms in lap showing right above the left, this posture is commonly seen in Buddha and also Yoga-Naraya?a Vi??u and Siva images) and kayotsarga-mudras (standing erect with both hands hanging down, this posture is exclusive to Jina images.) The Jinas in art are always depicted as vitaragis (free from desire and passion) and never bestowing boons pertaining to the fulfillment of material desires of the worshippers.
A unique character of Jaina thought and art was that the acaryas never compromised on the basic tenets. It is interesting to note the contrast with Buddhist art, where the Buddha, in due course of time, was depicted with such gestures as the abhaya-mudra, the gesture of bestowing protection, and the varada-mudra, conferring boons, which show his power to intervene and bestow blessings in the material and phenomenal world. In Jainism, none of the Jinas was ever credited with performance of miracles, even at the time of their upsargas (inflictions during the tapas i.e. austerity). This was not the case with the imagery of the Buddha.
A holistic study of Jaina art is the need of time, which will enable us to assess and analyse the process and nature of mutual interactions within different streams of Jainism and also with Vaidik-Pura?ic stream. The Jaina acaryas assimilated the deities and mythological characters such as Lak?mi, Sarasvati, Ga?esa, A??adikpalas, Navagrahas, Kshetrapala, epic characters (Rama, K???a, Balarama) either directly or with some changes from Vaidik- Pura?ic stream. The rendering of Balarama and K???a with the images of Neminatha is found from the Kusha?a period at Mathura which grew further to culminate in 10th-13th century CE at Deogarh (U.P.), Vimala-Vasahi, Lu?a-Vasahi and Delva?a (Mt. Abu, Rajasthan). Due to this Vai??ava impact even today in Jaina temples we mostly find Vai??ava priests. The Buddhist motif depicting two deer on both sides of the dharmacakra, carved on the pedestals of Buddha images of Gupta period from Sarnath, was also assimilated in the Jina images, especially of Svetambara Jaina sites of Western India from about 9th cent. CE. Apparently deer in such renderings symbolize peace. Here the mutuality is based on the commonality of mindset of people of both Buddhism and Jainism intending to establish and sustain peace which is the ultimate objective and need of any society or culture of any time. The four Arya-satyas of Buddhism and Pañcamahavratas (satya, ahi?sa, asteya, aparigraha, brahmacarya) of Jainism are only the means to achieve that Peace for individuals and thereby entire society and world.
Vimala-Vasahi and Lu?a-Vasahi (1150-1250 CE) exhibit some very interesting renderings of K???a Lila and other K???a themes including Kaliyadamana (Vimala-Vasahi, cell no. 33), K???a playing Holi with Kanaksri?gako?a (as mentioned in Harshacarita of Ba?abha??a) with Gopa-Gopikas (cowherd boys and girls), the episodes of Bali and Vamana and Samudramanthana and vivid carving pertaining to K???a’s birth and his Bala-Lilas [Vajpeya, 1987, 195-202]. The scene of Holi, carved in the ceiling of the bhramika (corridor) at the devakulika no. 41 of Vimala-Vasahi (1150 CE) is a singular instance of such rendering in plastic art. It becomes all the more important in view of its Jaina context on one hand, and its total absence in the plastic art of Brahmanical context on the other hand. The ceiling accommodates nine figures of Gopas and Gopikas with K???a. K???a is playing Holi in the center in a joyful mood, with two cowhorn-shaped sprinklers in hands. K???a, wearing a small kirita-muku?a, is dressed in a long flowing uttariya (pitambara). All other figures are leaning towards K???a in rhythmic postures to create blissful movement of gaiety. The Lu?a-Vasahi (1250 CE) contains depictions of K???a’s birth (janma) under close vigil in prison and his Bala-Lilas (childhood miraculous activities). The second ceiling of devakulika no. 49 of Vimala-Vasahi exhibits remarkable figure of 16-armed Sthau?a (frightful man-lion incarnation of Vi??u) killing the demon Hira?yakashipu. The effective and dynamic representation undoubtedly makes it one of the best illustrations of Narasi?ha in Indian art. Episodes from life of K???a are mentioned in great details in Jaina texts of both Svetambara and Digambara affiliations but nowhere are references to Narasi?ha as well as to the episode of K???a's Holi found. Apparently such renderings were the outcome of contemporary social milieu of togetherness and mutuality.
The Parsvanatha (Jinanatha as per inscription) Digambara Jaina temple (originally dedicated to ??abhanatha) of Khajuraho (VS 1011= 954 CE) is a remarkable example of mutuality, whereon the figures of deities of Vaidik-Pura?ic tradition like Vi??u, Siva, Brahma, Rama, Balarama, Kama are carved both independently and along with their respective Saktis (consorts) in ali?gana-mudra. However the image of Surya is conspicuous by its absence on the temple, apparently due to his udicya-ve?a (upanaha, varma, avya?ga), indicative of alien features.
It is relevant here to mention that the text-Paumacariyam of Vimalasuri (1st to 4th century CE) eulogizes ??abhanatha with the appellations such as Brahma, Trilochana, Sa?kara and Ananta Naraya?a (5.122), thus paving the way for the rendering of Brahmanical deities on Jaina temples. The two Jaina epic works namely, Mahapura?a (consisting of Adipura?a of Jinasena -9th century CE and Uttarapura?a of Gu?abhadra - 10th century CE) and Tri?a??i Salakapuru?acaritra (of Hemacandra Suri, latter half of 12th century CE) are of enduring importance. These works, dealing at length with the lives of 63 Great Men (Salakapuru?as), have several references to the worship of Siva, Vi??u, K???a, Rama and other Brahmanical deities, besides the episodes of Nala-Damayanti, Ahilya, Bhagiratha and descend of Ga?ga. Jaina acarya Hemachandra, patronized by Kumarapala Chaulukya) not only visited famous Siva temple of Somnatha (Gujarat), but also composed verses in praise of Siva. ??abhanatha, bearing close semblance to Siva on account of lateral strands, bull cognizance and Gomukha Yak?a, has been eulogized in the Adipura?a of Jinasena with 1008 appellations which distinctly illustrate how liberally different Brahmanical deities have been imbibed. These names include Svayambhu, Sambhu, Sa?kara, Sadyojata, Trinetra, Jitamanmath, Tripurari, Trilocana, Siva, Isana, Bhutanatha, M?tuñjaya, Mahesvara, Mahadeva, Jagannatha, Lak?mipati, Dhata, Brahma, Hir?yagarbha, Visvamurti, Vidhata, Pitamaha, Caturanana, Indra, Mahendra, Surya, Aditya, Kubera, Vamanadeva, Rama and K???a. [Sumati-Jñana, 2007, pp. 170-80]
In view of the above references of Jaina texts one should not be surprised to find the renderings of Brahmanical deities on the Jaina temples of Khajuraho (Parsvanatha temple) Delva?a, Gyaraspur, Osiañ and Kumbhariya and also Kha??agiri Jaina caves. The figures of Rama-Sita with Hanumana on Parsvanatha temple (north facade) alongwith the episodes of Ramaya?a such as gloomy-faced Sita sitting in Asoka-va?ika with figure of Hanumana in her front and the abduction of Sita by Rava?a appearing in disguise, mentioned in the Paumacariyam and Padma-Pura?a are also interesting to reveal mutuality. The Paumacariyam also mentions that none else but Jinesvara only is capable of explaining the Ramacarit in its totality (1.9). On the other hand Rama is credited to have built Jina temples (1.72) and during the course of his exile he is believed to have resided in the Jina temples of Candrprabha, Santinatha and Munisuvrata, the last Jina being contemporary of Rama in Jaina tradition.
Another dimension of such mutuality is that Jina figures are also carved on the Brahmanical temples at Osiañ (Surya and Harihara temples, 8th -10th century CE), Khajuraho (Devi Jagadambi and Vishvanatha temples-11th century CE and also recently excavated Siva temple of early 11th century CE in Bijama??ala area of Khajuraho), Bhubanesvara (Muktesvara temple, 10th century CE) and in Karnataka (Vidyasha?kara temple, 14th century CE).
Further, Jaina art, as opined by many scholars, was not at all monotonous and dry, albeit, it was equally rich in aesthetic qualities, elegance, and representational variety. The Jina images even in their fixed customary postures (dhyana and kayotsarga) are always shown in accordance with the texts youthful (taru?a), and beautiful (Rupavana and Surupa as mentioned in the text of 6th -7th Century CE B?hat-Sa?hita and the ?anasara (55.46) and with spiritual radiance having tremendous variety in parikara composition:
Ajanulambabahu? srivatsa?ka? prasantamurtisca I
Digvasastaru?o rupava?sca karyorhata? deva? II B?hat-Sa?hita, 58.45
The figures of Yak?a, Yak? (Cakresvari Yak?i in the ceiling of Santinatha temple of Kumbhariya is labelled as Vai??avi), Lak?mi, Sarasvati, Ga?esa and others are always shown elegant and beautiful. The 10th -12th century CE images of Sarasvati are examples of beauty and grace. The most elegant of all such images of Sarasvati are found from Khajuraho (Parsvanatha temple), Pallu (Bikaner, Rajasthan, now in National Museum, Delhi), Delva?a (Vimala-Vasahi) where Sarasvati holding manuscript and vi?a is flanked by two standing male figures bearing measuring rod and thread (suta) and inscribed as Kela and Loya?a, the main sculptor and architect of Vimala-Vasahi. These are alluring depictions of Sarasvati’s divine grace, suppleness, and beauty. The magnificent temples of Deogarh, Khajuraho, Delva?a, Kumbhariya, Satruñjaya, Osiañ and rock-cut caves of Ellora have yielded the figures of vitaragi Jinas alongside those of Yak?a-Yak?i, Mahavidyas and apsaras side by side, representing the both spiritual and material worlds.
Jainas of both the sects were inclined towards making innovations in art to cope with the need and aspirations of the masses and thereby society but without violating the textual injunctions. Deogarh (Lalitpur, U.P.) was most prolific in this context which has yielded such images wherein Sarasvati (personification of Jaina Texts embodying the preachings of the Jinas) and Bahubali (epitome of renunciation - Aparigraha and non-violence) are shown with two or three Jinas to put them at par with the Jinas, highest in Jaina worship. Jainas, following the tradition of composite character of Indian culture and art and its visual expression in the forms of Ardhanarisvara, Harihara and Hariharahira?yagarbha in Brahmanical context, also attempted at such renderings in Jaina context. Such Jaina images assignable between Kusha?a-Gupta and medieval period are found mainly from Mathura, Rajgir, Khajuraho and Deogarh. In such examples of Dvitirthi, Tritirthi, Caumukhi (Pratima-Sarvatobhadrika) and even in single Jina images two, three or four Jinas are shown together. Rajgir alone in between 6th and 11th century CE has yielded several composite Jina images depicting Suparsvanatha-Neminatha, Parsvanatha-Ajitanatha and Parsvanatha-Mahavira with the features of two Jinas shown together. In one early-medieval example from Mathura (now in State Museum, Lucknow-J.78) also the features of ??abhanatha (bull cognizance and lateral strands) and Neminatha (Balarama-K???a and Ambika Yak?i) are shown together to make it composite image of the two Jinas.
Another rare example of seven headed Jina image is in the Battersea Reserve Collection of Victoria & Albert Museum, London (Acc. No. IS 453) [Sumati-Jñana, 2007, pp. 170-80]. The image in stone is dated in Vira (Mahavira) sa?vat 1928 (1401 CE). The seated figure(without pratiharyas) has a crescent cognizance carved on the pedestal which is the cognizance of the Jina Candraprabha. The name of the Jina is also mentioned in the inscription. The enigmatic point is that the Jina is provided with seven faces which obviously is suggestive of some composite form wherein Candraprabha is the principal Jina. The faces, however, should have been eight in number to correspond with the traditional order according to which Candraprabha is the 8th Jina. The possible provenance of the image is Western India.
The figures of Yak?as and Yak?is (Sasanadevatas or Jina-asrita [Hariva?sa-Pura?a, 66.43-44] are carved invariably on the right and left extremity of the pedestals of the images of the vitaragi Jinas (epitome of spirituality) to cater to the need of the worldly aspirations of the worshippers. According to the Hariva?sa-Pura?a (783 CE), Sasanadevatas are to fulfill the worldly desires of the common worshippers and remove the pangs of evil spirits and grahas and rogas:
Grahoraga bhutapisacarak?asa hitprav?tauh janavighna kari?a?. I
Jinesina? sasanadevataga?a prabhavasaktyath sama? Srayantite II Hariva?sa-Pura?a, 66.45
Here, in one single icon format, one witnesses the fusion of both spiritual (Jina) and material (Yak?a-Yak?i) attainments. Such fusion is also indicative of the possible futuristic change of mental attitude of worshippers from worldly to spiritual by way of the constant presence of and visual contact with the Jinas in all such manifestations.
The study of social engineering of Jaina art is also important which needs our attention. The Jaina images of Kusha?a period from Mathura and several other places bear testimony to such social engineering wherein the contributions of all the strata and segments of society have been recorded, including those of women and business community. The pedestal inscriptions of Jina images of Kusha?a period show that entire society was contributing to the carving of Jaina images to make it a mass activity.
Apparently, the liberal Jaina social concept of equality without disparity of cast or class encouraged the business class and common man to accept Jainism and contribute to its development by different means. This remained the socio-economic features of subsequent period also. Most of Kusha?a inscriptions from Mathura carved on pedestals of Sarasvati and independent and four fold (Pratima-Sarvatobhadrika) Jina images mention that these images were installed / prepared for the welfare and happiness of all (savvasatvanam hitsukhaya). [Epigraphia Indica, Vol. II, pp. 202, 208-210]. The inscriptions frequently provide the names of merchants (sre??hin), traders (sarthvaha), perfumers (gandhik), goldsmiths (svar?akara), ironsmiths (lauhakarmaka), sailors (navika), barbers (napit), dancers (nartaka), prostitutes (veshyas), ladies of foreign origin (Ogha, Okharika, Ujha?ika) and different guilds (go??his) of traders, who contributed immensely to the making of Jaina images [Epigraphia Indica, Vol. I & Vol. II].
Likewise great Jaina temples at Osiañ, Kumbhariya, Khajuraho, Delva?a, Satruñjaya, Girnar were also erected with the support and patronage of traders and mercantile community. This is true even in present day context. The Jaina inscription of VS1011(954 CE) in the Parsvanatha temple, Khajuraho refers to the construction of this temple of Jinanatha (Adinatha) by a Jaina trader Pahila of Grahapati family, who was honoured by the then Chandella ruler Dha?ga for this magnificent contribution. In its sculptural and inscriptional content this temple is the living example of socio-religious harmony and mutuality between Brahmanical and Jaina faiths [Epigraphia Indica, Vol. I].This inscription also alludes to the donation of several va?ikas (gardens) by Pahila for the maintenance of that temple. Interestingly these gardens in inscription are named as: Pahila, Chandra, Laghuchandra, Sa?kara, Pañchayatana, Amra and Dha?ga va?ikas to reinforce the history of socio-religious harmony [Tiwari, 1987]. The inscription also refers to Jaina acarya Vasavacandra who was the Maharajaguru of Dha?ga. The study of such inscriptions is especially important for a building a comprehensive perspective.
The conversion of Mallinatha, the 19th Jina into a female Jina in Svetambara tradition in post Gupta period, was also the outcome of social compulsions to open the path of salvation to women and thereby according them respectable and equal status. The earliest image of Mallinatha (in dhyana-mudra) shown as female Jina is found from Unnao in U.P. (now in State Museum, Lucknow-J.885) and is dated to 11th century CE.
Another point of mention is the sporadic rendering of erotic figures on Jaina temples, which is taken to be the violation of the Jaina tradition. But the probing into textual references interestingly reveal asto the approval for such renderings on Jaina temples. The Jaina text Hariva?sa-Pura?a provides an interesting reference in this respect:
Atraiva Kamadevasya ratesca pratimamvyadhat I
Jinagare samastaya? prajaya? kautukaya sa? II
Hariva?sa-Pura?a, 29.2
It refers to the construction of a Jina temple by sre??hin Kamadatta, who for the sake of attraction of the masses (prajaya? kautukaya) also set up the figures of Kamadeva and Rati in the temple (Jinagara). It also alludes to the worship of Kamadeva and Rati along with the Jina images. Interestingly on the exterior walls of Parsvanatha temple of Khajuraho, there are four sets of images of Kama (with pañca-pu?pa-sara-five arrow of flowers and ik?udhanu-bow made of sugar-cane) and Rati in ali?gana-pose which are the highest number of Kama-Rati images on a single temple at Khajuraho and elsewhere. The representations of amorous couples engrossed in different erotic activities on the Jaina temples (10th -13th century CE) of Svetambara and Digambara affiliations are also indicative of the change in social milieu and mind set in Jaina context. The main examples of such erotic figures, besides Parsvanatha temple, Khajuraho are found from the Jaina temples at Deogarh (Lalitpur, U.P.), Ara?ga (Bha??a Deul, Chhattisgarh, 11th century CE), Tara?ga (Ajitanatha temple built by Kumarapala Chaulukya of 12th century CE, Mahesana, Gujarat) and Kumbhariya (Neminatha temple of 12th century CE, Banaskantha, Gujarat).
Like the Brahmanical temples, the Jaina temples also represent a concept in which the 24 Jinasor Tirtha?karas, embodiment of highest spiritual values, occupy the highest position and their idols hence are enshrined in the sanctum and also on different parts of the temple. Another identical point of Brahmanical and Jaina temples is that these are non-sectarian in spirit and manifestation because, besides the principal image of sanctum suggesting the religious dedication or affiliation, different parts of the temples exhibit the figures of other deities also, ignoring the specific attribution of the temple. It is due to this fact that Brahmanical deities appear on Jaina temples as well as Jina figures on the Brahmanical temples as mentioned earlier. It seems that people of those times had realized that there was no basic differences between the spirit and purpose of different prevailing religions and that an individual might follow any one of them or even could make combination of the acceptable elements of anyone or more of them as suited to his purpose and temperament, somewhat in the manner of the mindset of a modern man.
The Jaina temples are the integrated examples of architecture and sculptural renderings which show Jinas and various forms of other deities, apsaras and human beings revealing the synthesis of the material and divine or spiritual world. Contemporary life as depicted on Jaina temples should be evaluated and understood in the spirit of their contents and social milieu. Day to day activities of the contemporary life represented on Jaina temples are inter-woven with the world of flora and fauna. This commonality of Brahmanical and Jaina temples should be underlined in future studies of Jaina art. For example Indra in Jaina art is shown as supreme dancer in place of Siva. At Ellora (in painting), Delva?a-Vimala-Vasahi, Kumbhariya- Santinatha temple [Lara Azzola, JPRB, pp. 143-46]. The continuity in Jaina tradition of the Vaidik character of Indra as Supreme Dancer is a unique example of the flow of Vaidik tradition into the subsequent Jaina tradition. This constitutes an interesting evidence of mutuality and interaction. Indra with thunderbolt in hand and elephant as mount is depicted as dancing on Jaina temples.
Architecturally the Jaina temples broadly follow the style of Indian temple architecture shared commonly by the Brahmanical and Jaina temples. The common rendering of the figures of Ga?ga and Yamuna on the doorways of north Indian Brahmanical and Jaina temples is also of symbolic suggestion to remind the worshippers respectively of purity and devotion as prerequisite to enter into sanctum sanctorum. The Jainas have contributed both to the making of the structural and rock-cut temples and caves spread over the whole of India and in several examples their existence side by side with the Brahmanical temples such as at Badami, Aihole, Ellora (all rock-cut), Osiañ, Khajuraho, Halebi?, Kañchipuram are particularly noteworthy. However, distinctive features of Jaina temples could also be mentioned which are the inclusion of elaborate and exquisite ra?gama??apa (sabhama??apa) at Kumbhariya, Delva?a and Ranakpur and the 24 devakulikas (small shrines) around the main shrine to match with the number of 24 Jinas. Sometimes the number of small shrines goes to 48 and even more as found at Delva?a and Kumbhariya.
The case study of Gomma?esvara Bahubali icons will show how the holistic, conceptual, and contextual study based on texts and art brings forth broad based conclusions some of which are relevant in present day context of severe violence, conflicts, excessive possessiveness, and ecological problems. Art examples of past should now be used also as tool for sustaining social harmony and awareness for moral obligations.
Bahubali, also known as Gomma?esvara, in the southern tradition, occupies a singularly venerated position in the Jaina tradition and worship and hence in visual art [Shah, 1953-54, 32-39]. It is particularly important to note that Bahubali was neither a Jina (highest in Jaina worship) nor does he figure in the list of the 63 Salakapuru?as (Great Men), mentioned in the Jaina texts. Bahubali was the younger son of the first Jina- ??abhanatha. In a fierce fight with his elder brother Bharata Chakravartin, Bahubali emerged as victor but in the final moment of triumph, the futility of worldly power and possessions dawned on him. As a consequence, Bahubali, handed back the reins of power to his brother and renounced worldly possessions and went on to attain omniscience and hence salvation. As an ascetic, he performed rigorous and prolonged meditation for a whole year. During this period he stood erect in the kayotsarga-posture (with both hands hanging down) and finally attained kevala-jñana (omniscience).
Bahubali became the symbol of non-violence, as during his fight with Bharata he desisted from battle between the armies to avoid bloodshed and massacre and went for duel fight and that too without using any weapon. To suggest rigorous tapas, Bahubali in the visual representation is shown not only in the kayotsarga-mudra, but also with creepers entwining his limbs (sarva?gasangini). Another feature in the Bahubali imaging is the depiction of snakes, lizards and scorpions either nearby or creeping over his body. The presence of the deer and the sylvan backdrop marks out the Bahubali’s images from Ellora caves (Nos. 30-34, 9th century CE, Maharashtra). The representational characteristics distinclly suggest the long passage of time in which Bahubali was absorbed in tapas or deep trance. The creepers and the scorpions, lizards, snakes and deer depicted either on the body of Bahubali or nearby, symbolize the intimate relationship and co-existence of man and nature. The images of Gomma?esvara Bahubali thus could be viewed today in the context of our serious ecological concerns [Tiwari, East and West, 1973, pp. 347-53; Tiwari, Sramana, pp. 103-09].
The kayotsarga posture and nudity of Bahubali are symbolic of total renunciation and perfect self-control. The profound observance of renunciation, non-violence and austerity inspired both the Svetambara and the Digambara Jainas to worship Bahubali who as a result, became a powerful symbol as well as a personification of the aprigraha, non-violence and self-sacrifice preached by the Jinas.
The literary references to Bahubali are found in sources dating from about 4th cent. CE, of which the most important ones are: the Paumcariyam, the Vasudevahi??i and the Avasyaka-niryukti (around early 6th century CE), the Padmapura?a of Ravise?a (676 CE), Hariva?sa-Pura?a of Jinasena (783 CE), the Adipura?a of Jinasena, the Tri?a??isalakapuru?acarita of Hemacandra, the Caturvi?sati-Jina-Carita of Amarchandra Suri (13th century CE), the Tri?a??ilak?a?aMahapura?a of Camundaraya (10th century CE) and Adipura?a of Kannara poet Pampa (941 CE).
Some very significant iconographic features of Bahubali images led me to believe that in art, particularly so of the Digambara Jaina tradition, a graceful process of elevating Bahubali in rank, started in the 7th-8th century CE. The process culminated in bringing Bahubali almost at par with the Jinas (highest in Jaina worship) by associating with him a??apratiharyas (including triple parasol overhead to be shown only in Jina images) and the figures of Yak?a and Yak?i at sites namely-Deogarh and Khajuraho during 9th and 12th century CE. The above iconographic features were not mentioned in texts but the deep reverence for Bahubali resulted into the association of elements of Jina images with him to make him equal to the Jinas in Jaina worship. Thus the socio-religious force made Bahubali a non-Jina model for society transmitting through him the message of observance of spiritual and ethical values like non-violence and non-acquisition in life.
Through the legend and images of Gomma?esvara Bahubali virtually a new ideal was introduced into Jainism to suggest that even an ordinary person, through the observance of ahi?sa, tyaga, aprigraha and sadhana, can attain the most exalted position of the highest veneration. It was not a coincidence that the tallest Jaina images ever carved were those of Gomma?esvara Bahubali (at Srava?abe?go?a, Karnataka, 983 CE), who was not a Jina but merely a kevalin. The culmination of the process of this elevation is found in the Karkal (Karnataka) inscription of 1432 CE, wherein he is referred to as Gomma?a Jinapati. In the sculptures of the 9th and 12th cent.CE found from Deogarh in UP and Ellora in Maharashtra, Bharata Chakravartin, the symbol of highest worldly power and royalty is shown sitting in the attitude of supplication at the feet of Gomma?esvara Bahubali. This juxtaposition of Bharata and Bahubali represents the very soul of Indian culture which has held the values of aprigraha and ahi?sa always at the summit of moral excellence. Even today, one expects the highest political dignitary to bow before spiritual sages. The Digambara works mention that Bahubali attained omniscience only after he received the homage of his elder brother Bharata Cakravartin. It is also mentioned that the devotion of Bharata was so deep that he caused an image of Bahubali to be made. It is worthwhile to note that Bharara also subsequent to his renunciation relinquished insignia of supreme ruler (Cakravartin: navanidhis-nine treasures and fourteen ratnas-jewels) and observed Muni-dharma by deep meditation and consequently attained omniscience. As a result Bharata also became an object of worship and hence his independent images were carved both at Svetambara and Digambara Jaina sites, namely Satruñjaya (14th century CE, Gujarat) and Deogarh (11th-12th century CE).
Another point concerning Bahubali images is the invariable rendering of two standing female figures on two sides of Bahubali (standing in tapas) in the instances of both the Svetambara and Digambara traditions. All the previous scholars including U.P. Shah, C. Sivaramamurti, Saryu Doshi have identified these flanking female figures with the figures of sadhvis, Brahmi and Sundari, the two sisters of Bahubali, who, according to the Svetambara texts (Tri?a??isalakapuru?acarita vol. I, pp-323-26), at the instance of ??abhanatha came to Bahubali to persude him to shake off the remnants of pride and come down from elephant (symbol of pride shown on the pedestal of Svetambara image of Bahubali from Satruñjaya). Bahubali standing in trance could attain omniscience only after that. But the Digambara works, on the contrary, envisage the presence of the two Vidyadharis (female angels), who according to the Hariva?sa-Pura?a, 11.101 (Lata? vyapanayantibhya? khecaribhya? babhau muni? I) and the Adipura?a, vol. II. 36.183 (Vidyadharya? kadacicca kri?ahetoupagata? I Vallirud- ve??ayamasur mune? sarva?gasangini? II) came down to earth to remove the entwining creepers (sarva?gasangini) from the body of Bahubali deeply engrossed in tapas. These figures can not be the figures of Jaina sadhvis, Brahmi and Sundari, in Digambara Jaina context, since these are endowed with decorated mukutas and other ornaments. Accordingly the Bahubali images from Svetambara sites (Santinatha temple, Kumbhariya; Vimala-Vasahi, Delva?a and Satruñjaya) show the flanking sadhvi figures of Brahmi and Sundari (without ornaments in ascetic attire) in persuasive attitude while the images from Digambara sites (Badami, Aihole, Ellora, Deogarh, Siron Khurd, Khajuraho) distinctly exhibit the bedecked figures of two Vidyadharis (Khecaris) standing on two flanks of Bahubali and holding the two ends of entwining creepers in their effort to remove it.
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