The narrative of Buddha in mahaparinirvana has great importance in Buddhist art, typified by the diverse representational forms, ranging from the small stupa fragments and steles to colossal monolith statues. Exalted as one of the sacred events from Buddha's life, this episode is eloquently described in the Mahaparinirvana Sutta that shed light on the concept of Buddhist pilgrimages, commemorating the life and preaching of Buddha in its entirety. The text relates several instructions and teachings for the order (sangha) which Sakyamuni proclaimed before his death. Thus, the iconicity of the theme acts like a visual motif that brings forth a wealth of ideas on ritual, pilgrimage, and spiritual transcendence, evoking the essence of emptiness (P. sunnata, Skt. shunyatas). However, the influence of doctrinal transformations within Buddhism added multifaceted dimensions to the narrative form, expanding the scope of visual interpretation of semiotic and metaphysical values.
In conformity with the early Buddhist teachings, having passed into parinirvana, the Buddha has completely disappeared from the cycle of rebirth (samsara). The Mahaparinirvana sutta clearly states nirvana is final emancipation (vimukti-liberation), attained through relinquishment and segregation from bonds of illusion, desires, defilements, life, and death. It leads to the end of suffering and the realm is characterized neither as existence (arising) nor as non-existence (ceasing). Skorupski states that the canonical literature also explicates that the parinirvana of Buddha is threefold, including- the first parinirvana occurred at Bodhgaya with the achievement of Enlightenment; the second took place at Kushinagara that entailed the dissolution of his bodily aggregates; and lastly, the final parinirvana will purportedly happen at the end of the world, when the Buddha’s relics after assembling at Bodhgaya and would metamorphize into an effulgent and golden body and will completely disappear. From the Buddhist religious-philosophical point of view, the inextricable essence of this transcendence could be interpreted as the departure of Buddha from his earthly state of nirmanakaya and his arrival into the adamantine form of the dharmakaya, emphasizing the psychological aspect of salvation. The dharmakaya is also considered as the Buddha’s wisdom, representing the cognitive phenomenon of the highest order. This concept further elucidates the genesis of the Buddha icon from the trikaya (triple body) system, which is a fundamental concept in both Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. The three natures of a Buddha can be experienced as nirmanakaya (the transformation and physical body), sambhogakaya (the enjoyment body), and dharmakaya, which is unbound and inconceivable, so it has no representation. [1] The nirmanakaya or the physical body is the ideal representation of the Buddha, meant to be venerated as the absolute truth, which is representational and perceivable through worldly eyes. On the contrary, the dharmakaya cannot be visualized, understood, or apprehended and it has an infinite concept, which is unperceivable through normal vision. On similar lines, the Buddhist literature also emphasizes that to meditate on Buddha, it is customary to have such a ‘mind-made body’ (manomaya kaya) for contemplation of Buddha in his physical form, which reinforces the concept of visualization in the Buddhist ritualistic sphere.
Hence, the visual metaphor of mahaparinirvana Buddha is an artistic exemplar that not only depicts the state of transcendence, but showcases the deep-rooted concept of nothingness or emptiness of beings (shunyata), experienced when one attains nirvana. Emptiness emerges from the idea of supreme enlightenment, freed from all kinds of attachment, either objective reality or distinct reality. From the perspective of canonical literature, the idea originates from the ‘empty place’ (sunnagara and sunnlokka) in which the monk practices meditation to develop concentration and wisdom, leading to the focal point of non-self or absence of self (P. anatta, Skt. anatman), which is a basic insight or right view (sammatthiti); ultimately, coalescing with the state of nirvana. However, its examination in a comprehensive manner highlights its all-inclusive nature; unifying all different aspects and levels of philosophical understandings of Buddhist principle and surmising the teachings of the dependent origination (P. paticcasamuppada, Skt. pratityasamutpada), the middle way (majjhima-patipada), the truth of cessation (P. nibbana, Skt. nirvana), the world of suffering or six sensory fields (samsara), and absence of self (anatman). Shunyata is conceived differently in the Pali canon (Tripitaka) from the scholastic manuals (abhidharmas), the treatises (shastras) of the Theravada school and also the Madhyamaka. This metaphysical concept existed in early Buddhism but became the cornerstone for all Mahayana philosophy, both the Madhyamika and Yogacara schools, and reached its zenith with the manifestation of the Prajnaparamita discourse with the Vajrayana influx. The deification of the Prajnaparamita sutra as the ‘mother of all Buddhas’ recognizes the sacred text as a ‘cult object’ whose venerable state is equivalent to the Buddha’s relic.
The Mahayana phase led to a paradigm shift in the theory of nirvana, foregrounding the profound relationship between emptiness and transcendental wisdom. Since the early phase of Buddhism, the cultivation of a meditative state of concentration (P. samatha, Skt. samadhi) and wisdom (P. panna, Skt. prajna) are considered prerequisites for the achievement of knowledge of liberation (nirvana-jnana) and cessation of suffering or elimination of desires. The Prajnaparamita literature, the foundational text of Mahayana philosophy, revolved around the concept of emptiness, accentuating both the emptiness of beings and the emptiness of all dharmas (sarvadharmashunyata). Based on the gnostic approach to attain salvation, the Mahayana views nirvana as Absolute, that is ‘suchness’ and ‘void’, identified with the supreme reality and true nature of Buddha, and expounded the concept of non-duality and transcendental wisdom. It emphasized that the achievement of perfections abolishes all the dualities while propounding the Bodhisattva ideal which completely shifted the metaphorical essence of nirvana. In this whole process, the Prajnaparamita discourse played an instrumental role in the reframing of the meaning and the ambivalent relationship of nirvana and samsara, which are featured as ‘two truths’, in which conventional knowledge arises within samsara, while ultimate knowledge arises within nirvana. Thus, the transcendental wisdom (prajna) gained a paramount significance and becomes equated with the ultimate state of shunyata.
In congruence with the above discussions, it is apparent that the concept of nirvana became an indispensable part of the philosophical matrix of the Prajnaparamita theory. In visual terms, the shifting centrality of the theme could be ascertained from the iconographic formations that facilitated the growth of a distinctive genre of artistic expression and the evolution of style. The sculptures of reclining Buddha in mahaparinirvana produced from the Gandhara to the Gupta phase are essentially grounded on the canonical literature, epitomizing its relevance as witnessed from the grandiosity in the artistic renditions, whereas in the post-Gupta and Pala images, the scope of the same theme is subdued as it treated like a visual narrative of Buddha’s life. This entire ideological shift could be examined and outlined through the study of the stylistic and iconographic analysis of the mahaparinirvana images in chronological order, beginning from the Gandhara to the Pala period. The theme remained widely popular and propagated from India to Central Asia, Far East, and South and Southeast Asia, from ancient to the early medieval times.
Visual Interpretations
Over time, Buddhist art came to be represented through an aniconic and iconic phase in early Indian art. The earliest visual reference to the event of mahaparinirvana in iconic form can be found in the Gandharan fragments of the Kushana period. Gandharan stupas illustrated various scenes from Buddha’s life on the stupa base (medhi) and drum (anda). In consonance with the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, Kushan Gandhara art created unique representations of Buddha’s transcendence (mahaparinirvana) and last rites. One of the well-articulated grey schist fragmentary slabs, datable to the 2nd century CE, from the Kushan period, Gandhara, is housed in the Indian Museum, Kolkata. This dense narrative rendered in a compact form depicts the mourning and wailing devotees and celestial beings that have come to pay homage to the resting figure of Buddha. Placed between the twin shala trees, a recumbent Buddha figure is shown after attaining mahaparinirvana. Buddha is resting on his right side with one leg resting on the other, while his head rests on his right hand with a pillow underneath; the left hand is gently placed on his left side, as mentioned in the Mahaparinirvana Sutra. Mourners are shown lamenting and weeping over the death of the Tathagata. Ananda, a senior monk in the monastic order is shown standing aside, while in center Subhadra is shown seated in a meditative pose with his back turned towards the front of the panel. He was the last monk converted by Buddha, who attained arhathood listening to Buddha’s last sermon. Next to Buddha’s feet is Maha Kashyapa, who arrived at Kushinagara with more than five-hundred followers after Buddha had passed away. The foreground also has a wailing figure of Vajrapani holding a thunderbolt (vajra). In the background, several lay devotees and celestial beings are shown standing in disbelief and mourning his passing away. The narration of this significant event is divided between two groups, the mourning, and wailing monks and the calm subdued figures of the Bodhisattva figures. The concept of pain and sorrow is absent as the scene of Buddha’s death is treated not as loss, as the entire image bespeaks spiritual tranquility and transcendence, reflected from the composed countenance of Buddha.
The mahaparinirvana Buddha is also depicted in a monumental form, marking the growth and expansion of Mahayana Buddhist practices. The colossal form of reclining Buddha is an important phenomenon in Buddhist art, expounding the concept of spiritual kingship synthesized with temporal kingship, manifested by the immense scale of Buddha figure, which has always been an object of loving meditation (buddhanusmriti). Dorothy C. Wong states the idea is concomitant with the exaltation of the Buddha as supramundane, a supreme being that developed in Buddhist doctrines. Making Buddha statues of enormous size became a metaphor for the cosmic, universal dimension of the Buddha or Buddhahood. The earliest colossal reclining Buddha appeared in India during the Gupta-Vakataka period. The famous monolith sculpture of mahaparinirvana Buddha, 24ft long, is chiselled in Cave 26 of Ajanta, Aurangabad, while another image, 6.10 meters long, carved of chunar sandstone and painted in gold, is enshrined in the nirvana stupa at Kushinagara, where he entered into the final state of mahaparinirvana. It’s the site of demise of the Buddha, associated both with the performance of his last rites, such as veneration of the corpse, clothing of the corpse, and cremation, and also the collection, dispute, and distribution of his body relics. The concept became popular and was adopted by many polities along the Silk Road and across Southeast Asia, with local rulers aspiring to be Buddhist sovereigns. Some of the prominent examples are seen at the Buddhist site of Ajina Tepe, an archaeological site situated in the south of Tajikistan, which dates back to the 7th and 8th centuries CE; the Cave 148, Mogao Caves, Dunhuang, 7th- 8th century CE, and the Bingling Temple (ca. 618-907 CE) in China. The finest of rock-cut recumbent Buddha image is at Gala Vihara, Sri-Lanka, datable to 12th century CE, while the largest reclining Buddha at the Wat Pho temple of Bangkok is 46 meters long. It is thought to be the oldest temple at Bangkok built during the Ayuthhya period (14th century CE).
Apart from the individual images, the mahaparinirvana theme is widely depicted in the form of narrative art. Gradually, the artists experimented with different decorative formats, iconographic and stylistic forms to illustrate the life events related to the Buddha, both the episodes from his past lives and the legends of Sakyamuni in his last earthly existence, in plastic art, corresponding to the Buddhist treatises and literary sources. The life episodes of Buddha are described in both prose and poetic form in the Buddhist cannon. Few important Sanskrit texts are - the Mahavastu, Lalitavisatara, Nidanakatha, Buddhacarita and Abhiniskramanasutra, which eloquently narrate the life events in a descriptive manner, while in the Pali texts, the life events of Buddha are arranged in scattered pieces in the form of suttas expounding the miracles and teachings of Buddha. Some important texts include- Mahavagga, Cullavagga, Mahapadanasutta and Ariya-pariyesana sutta, Suttanipata and Mahaparibbana sutta. In Buddhist art, the eight great miracles (ashtamahapratiharya) is widely depicted as per the eight pilgrimage sites (atthamahathanani) epitomizing the life of Buddha and his teachings, thus creating a unique visual iconography for worship. Buddha himself mentioned these places to his disciple Ananda, which is also mentioned in the Mahaparinirvana Sutra. The text propagates worship of sacred places associated with the Buddha’s birth, enlightenment, first sermon and demise. In its fifth chapter, Buddha mentioned this to his disciple Ananda and proclaimed that a follower of Buddhism, should remember, visit and venerate: Lumbini, Bodhgaya, Sarnath, and Kushinagara, where the Tathagata took birth, attained enlightenment, delivered his inaugural sermon and received the mahaparinirvana. These four sites became recognized as the major pilgrimages, related to the four major events of Buddha’s life with the four minor events at four other places. Collectively, these eight great venues popularly came to be known as the atthamahathanani, identified by their respective miracles, called ashtamahapratiharya.
The tradition of the portrayal of Buddha’s life continued to flourish in different artistic traditions with the incorporation of new iconographic elements. The Sarnath school developed a new format presenting the scenes from Buddha’s life in a schematic manner that differed from the early Indian reliefs. Gupta steles of Sarnath seem to be devoid of their architectural functions; rather these biographical scenes became independent icons on which devotees could focus their devotion. The most common format is the rectangular stele comprising of four horizontal registers, narrating the four major life events of Buddha, in which the rendition showcases the equal hierarchal status of all the episodes. The narrative starts from the lower register, beginning with the nativity, following a sequence of narratives, and culminates with the great demise of Buddha, which makes the appearance of the composition dense.
However, the iconographic configuration of the ashtamahapratiharya seen in the Pala sculptures is more defined and portrayed compactly, with a central figure surrounded by vignettes of the auspicious sites. Analysis of the Pala steles reveals that primarily the enlightenment event acts as the protagonist and occupies the central portion of the composition, in which the figure of Buddha is seated in the bhumisparsha mudra (earth touching pose). But exceptions also exist to this generalized format, wherein the central position is occupied by the seated Buddha figure in the dharmachakra mudra (turning the wheel of law pose), and at times the standing figure of Buddha, denoting the descent from Trayastrimsa Heaven. The central figure is carved in high relief, while the remaining life incidents and miracles are symmetrically arranged in a clockwise manner (commencing from the bottom) around him on all sides, along the tiny visuals in bas relief. Interestingly, the primal position of Buddha images in enlightenment and preaching modes signifies the supreme rank of transcendental wisdom (prajna) in Buddhist axis. The mahaparinirvana scene invariably appears surmounting the stele, denoting its premier rank in the Buddhist philosophy, although depicted in a miniscule format. In the contrary, the life episodes underlining wisdom forms the central theme, determining the philosophical shift introduced by the Prajnaparamita discourse. One of the fine examples of miniature stele from Nalanda, datable to 10th century CE, is housed in the National Museum, Delhi, which represents the central figure of Buddha seated under the bodhi tree in bhumisparsha mudra, symbolizing his enlightenment at Bodhgaya. The ashtamahapratiharya narrative begins from the right on the lowest row with the Nativity scene at Lumbini, in which Mayadevi is represented as a shalabhanjika, and on the opposite side is the seated Buddha holding the bowl containing honey offered by the monkey at Vaishali. In the middle tier, the two preaching Buddhas seated in pralambapadasana (pendant leg pose), depict the first sermon at Sarnath to the proper right and the miracle at Shravasti to the proper left. Just above can be spotted the identically standing figures discernible for the descent at Sankashya and the taming of Nalagiri at Rajgir. Surmounting all these is the depiction of the mahaparinirvana, with the monks on either side or a stupa in the background.
In the Pala sculptures, some of the ashtamahapratiharya stele represents the central figure of Buddha as diademed and attired in his princely grab, while maintaining the basic iconographical plan. The physical form of Buddha is invariably depicted draped in a monk’s robe and bereft of crown and ornamentation, signifying renunciation and acceptance of the ascetic life. To this system, Mahayana Buddhism introduced the concept of a crowned and bejewelled Buddha, thus venerating Buddha as a chakravartin (universal monarch). The philosophical concept emerged from the trikaya doctrine, in which the crowned Buddha is conceived as the sambhogkaya or the effulgent body of Buddha, glorious but sukshma (subtle and too refined). He is the Adi Buddha or the primordial Buddha, expressed through the presence of five transcendental Buddhas (panchatathagatas). One of the sculptural specimens of the 10th century CE from Nalanda Museum, Bihar, represents the central figure of the stele as the crowned Buddha seated in vajraparyankasana on a double lotus pedestal with his hands in the dharmachakra mudra, which is also an attribute of Vairochana Buddha. The similar format is used in which all the seven episodes are depicted in their usual format as seen in the earlier representation.
Votive Stupa
Before the emergence of anthropomorphic icons of Buddha, the idea of veneration was expressed with the media of signs and objects, embedded with doctrinally meaningful elements, such as- stupa, triratna (three jewels), dharmackara (sacred wheel of law), buddhapada (Buddha’s footprints), Bodhivriksha (Bodhi tree), chattra (parasol), vajrasana (diamond throne). These symbols of multivalent nature presented the theological and ritual focus of Buddhism, emphasizing the presence of Buddha in his absence, and played an active role in the interpretation of signs vis-à-vis objects which were used as aids in meditative practices. These symbols developed as the gradual deification and apotheosis of the Buddha took place. The concept of mahaparinirvana became exemplified through the stupas, which became the locus of Buddhist principles and rituals, carrying deep metaphorical and semiotic significance. Symbolically, the hemispherical structure encompassing the Buddha’s relics, not only became just a commemorative sign related to the earthly phenomenon but contextualized the idea of spiritual awakening as a summarized form of the dharma (Buddha’s teachings), leading to the ultimate realization of the non-duality. The Mahaparinibbana sutta and other Buddhist textual sources record that after the Buddha's demise in the fifth century B.C., his disciples cremated his body and gave his ashes to eight kings to place in large mounds of the earth erected near crossroads. Chapter twenty-eight of the Mahavamsa, considered to be a latish composition, contains one of the most comprehensive accounts of the distribution of the Buddha’s relics.
Votive stupas function as commemorative offerings and are also worshipped in monastic establishments. These stupas are often carved from stone or molded in bronze. The tripartite structure of votive stupas comprises the superstructure, dome, and foundation. The ashtamahapratiharya episodes and a variety of Buddhist deities are found in the votive stupas from the Pala period. One of the finest metal votive stupa from Nalanda, datable to 9th century CE, is housed in the National Museum, Delhi, which displays the creation of the ashtamahapratiharya in a three-dimensional format. It has a square base, with steps in the center in four cardinal directions, with Bodhisattva images at the corners. It leads to the circumambulation path, around enshrined panels in high relief depicting eight episodes from the Buddha's life. The stupa drum is formulated in an octagonal manner, surrounding the terraces on which a lotus supports the dome, surmounted by parasol rings tapering upwards. The major four events are presented in the four cardinal directions, while the other four panels are juxtaposed in the side panels.
Another exemplar of the bronze votive stupa from Ashrafpur, Bangladesh, ascribable to the Ca. 700-800 CE, currently in the Indian Museum, Kolkata, represents the Buddhist cosmology, indicating the expansion of the Buddhist pantheon. This votive stupa consists of various Buddhist deities, giving an impression of a mandala, as determined from their iconographic placement. Although the iconography shows variations from the textual tradition, the stupa exudes artistic creativity and the evolving impact of tantric rituals in the cultural and artistic realms. The harmika is represented with the four Transcendental Buddha figures in different mudras, facing each cardinal direction, symbolizing their omnipresence. Above the harmika is placed the circular chattra. The dome bears four structural shaped niches containing a Buddha in bhumisparsha mudra and three Bodhisattva figures, one of them in a contemplative mood. Like the pyramidal roof of the harmika and the decorative façade of the pavilions, the architectural elements exhibit the influence of Odishan architecture. The base is rendered with square projecting niches, three on each side, containing twelve divinities. The central register displays a combination of tantric deities, such as Hayagriva, Vajrapani, Yamantaka, and Manjushri, flanked by two-armed female deities, Tara and Prajnaparamita, seated cross-legged with a lotus stalk in one hand and the other in the varada mudra (boon-granting pose).
Note:
1. The trikaya system was developed primarily by Asa?ga, his teacher Maitreya, and his brother Vasubandhu in fourth-century India. Together, they are often credited with establishing a new school of thought in Mahayana Buddhism called Yogacara. The earliest texts written by the sect introducing the trikaya system are the Mahayanasutralamkara by Maitreya and the Mahayanasamgraha by Asanga. See Rebecca L. Twist. Images of the Crowned Buddha along the Silk Road: Iconography and Ideology, Humanities 2018, 7(4), 92; 12; 12
References
Dorothy C. Wong. “Colossal Buddha Statues along the Silk Road”. Acta via Serica Vol. 4, No. 2, December 2019: 1-27 doi:10.22679/avs.2019.4.2.001.
Fogelin, Lars. "Material Practice and the Metamorphosis of a Sign: Early Buddhist Stupas and the Origin of Mahayana Buddhism." Asian Perspectives 51, no. 2 (2012): 278-310. Accessed February 14, 2021. .Seckel, Dietrich, and Andreas Leisinger. "Before and beyond the Image: Aniconic Symbolism in Buddhist Art." Artibus Asiae. Supplementum 45 (2004): 3-107. Accessed February 14, 2021. .Skorupski, Tadeusz. “The Buddhist Stupa. The Embodiment of the Immanent and Transcendent Buddha”. Rocznik Orientalist YCZNY, T. LXV, z. 1, 2012, (s. 180-194)
Twist, Rebecca L. “Images of the Crowned Buddha along the Silk Road: Iconography and Ideology”, Humanities 2018, 7(4), 92; 12 Wong, W.S., (2014) "Stupa, Pagoda and Chorten - Origin and Meaning of Buddhist Architecture”, Athens: ATINER'S Conference Paper Series, No: ARC2014-1094.
Welbon, G. Richard. "On Understanding the Buddhist Nirva?a." History of Religions 5, no. 2 (1966): 300-26. Accessed February 14, 2021. .