Published in Islamic Culture: The Hyderabad Quarterly Review, October, 1931, pp. 621-630
We know so little about the life-history of the artists of the period of Akbar and Jahangir-nay, of the Mughal artists in general-that even a scrap of paper, which may throw light on the biography of these artists, is of value to a student of Mughal art. Writers on Mughal painting have ordinarily made use of only such materials as had been available to them in printed Texts and Translations, but, it must be admitted that there is still a mass of material in Persian manuscripts which, if examined and published, will no doubt throw much light on the subject. There is another point which also deserves consideration. It has been supposed so long that all the Mughal artists were attached t the court of the Emperor only,-- but the fact is that some of the Mughal grandees also had well-equipped studios in which talented artists embellished and illuminated for them manuscripts of rare grace and beauty. Among such grandees was the Khan Khanan (‘Abur Rahim) the great general of Akbar and a son of the famous Bayram Khan (the Regent), who had gathered round him a galaxy of some of the most talented artists of the age. In our historical works the Khan Khanan appears in the role of a great commander and a capable administrator but, in fact, he was equally great as a poet, a scholar and a connoisseur. He was a generous patron of savants, poets, painters and penmen. Almost all the great poets of Akbar were formerly attached to his court In fact, they served their term of apprenticeship under him, before joining the service of the Emperor.
The Khan Khanan’s library has been described as a ‘Wonder of the Age’. It was a meeting-place of the best scholars and men of letters of the age. His biographer, ‘Abdul Baqi Nahawandi, who has written the excellent Ma’athir-i-Rahimi [*] (or the history of ‘Abdur Rahim, Khan Khanan), tells us that the Khan Khanan’s library was visited by nearly a hundred scholars daily, who met there ‘to have their doubts settled, their difficulties solved and their frontier of knowledge enlarged and extended’. The library was in the charge of a Superintendent, who was himself a scholar. His function was two-fold: first, the custody of the manuscripts and, secondly, the supervision of the work of the calligraphists, painters, gilders and book-binders, who were engaged in copying and illuminating the manuscripts. The Ma’athir gives us the names of five persons who at some time or the other, acted as librarians of the Khan Khanan, namely Shaikh ‘Abdus Salam (fol. 749b), Mawlana Baqa’I (fol. 625b), Mir Baqi of Transoxiana (fol. 758b), Mawlana Ibrahim (fol. 745b) and Shuja’a (fol.725a), besides Mawlana Kami, Ghani Hamadani and a few others who were also employed there.
Besides ancient manuscripts, the library contained a very large collection of autograph copies of the works of contemporary poets. But, alas, none of those autograph copies is known to exist to-day; and, of the older manuscripts, only a dozen have been traced so far. [1] All these copies are the finest specimens of the penman’s and the illuminator’s art [2], and some even contain excellent miniatures in the finest Persian and Mughal styles. The interest which the Khan Khanan took in the manuscripts of his library is proved by the fact that all the extant copies of his library bear his autograph notes also. I may mention here, in passing, that a beautiful copy of the Tudhkirat-ul Awliya, or the ‘Memoirs of the Saints’. Which formerly belonged to the library of the Khan Khanan and bears his autograph note on the fly-leaf, has recently been added to my humble collection of Persian manuscripts.
I have already said that the Khan Khanan was a very good connoisseur. An instance only will prove my point. The author of Kalimat-ush-Shu’ara narrates the following story of a painter who came to the Khan Khanan, with a picture and received a reward of five thousand rupees from him. He says:--
“When the Khan Khanan was going to the court of the Emperor, a painter came to him and handed over to him one of his pictures. The scene depicted therein was of a lady who was taking her bath and that a maid-servant was rubbing the sole of her foot with a pumice-stone. The Khan Khanan looked at the picture for a moment and then, putting it in his palanquin went away to pay homage to the Emperor. When he returned, the painter reappeared. He ordered that a sum of rupees five thousand be paid to him. The painter said, ‘My picture is hardly worth more than five rupees, but there is one artistic skill which I have employed in it. If your Honour has marked that, then I shall be glad to accept your reward, for then I shall have the satisfaction that your Honour has really appreciated my work’. The Khan Khanan said, ‘Your skill lies in that you have expressed in the lady’s face the feeling which is produced by the rubbing of the sole with a pumice-stone’. The painter was much delighted and he went round the palki of that connoisseur.” [3]
This much for painting. The interest which the Khan Khanan took in calligraphy may be proved from the following two instances, When ‘Abdul Baqi Nahawandi first came to his court and presented to hi a ‘Poem’, which was transcribed by the celebrated calligraphist, Mir ‘Imad of Qazwin, the Khan Khanan was so pleased with him that he at once appointed him to a high post and later commissioned him to compile the Ma’athir-i-Rahimi. [4] Again, when Khwaja Muhammad of Gilan sent to the Khan Khanan a Persian Poem, which was copied by the well-known calligraphist Amir Mu’izzudin Muhammad of Kashan, he sent him a lac of rupees. [5]
The author of the Ma’athir-ul-Umara has truly remarked that ‘the Khan Khanan’s court, which was the centre of the ‘masters’ of all branches of art and letters, was reminiscent of the days of Sultan Hussain Mirza and Mir ‘Ali Shir of Herat’. Like these two great bibliophiles-probably the greatest that Persia had ever known-the Khan Khanan also had (as appears from the Ma’athir-i-Rahimi), a regular staff of painters, gilders, illuminators and calligraphists. The Ma’athir gives us the names of five painters, two gilders and illuminators and three calligraphists only but, besides them, there must have been many more artists of lesser fame who were also engaged in illustrating and illuminating the manuscripts of the Khan Khanan.
Among the painters, we get the names of Miyan Nadim, Bahbud, mushfiq, Madhu and Ibrahim; and among the gilders and illuminators we find Mulla Muhammed Amin and Mulla Muhammad Husain; and among the calligraphists we have Mulla Abdur Rahim, Ambarin Qalam, Mulla Muhammad Mu’min, Mawlana Muhammad Darwish and Mulla Muhammad Baqir. The only specimen of the at of some of the above-named painters is in a copyoftheKhamsa, or the ‘Five Poems’, of Amir Khusraw of Delhi, which is preserved in the Staasbibliothec, Berlin (MS. Orient. Fol. 1278). Dr Goetz, who has examined the manuscript, says, “According to an extensive note inserted in 1617 by the Khan Khanan ‘Abdur Rahim Khan (one of the highest grandees of the Emperor Akbar and son of his guardian Bairam Khan) it was purchased by the latter in Gujurat, and is said to have been a masterpiece jointly executed by the calligrapher Sultan ‘Ali and the most renowned of Muslim painters, Bihzad. Its miniatures which are framed by charming illuminated borders, are, nevertheless, actually signed by three less known, painters of Akbar’s reign, Qasim, Nadim and Mish Kish. Originally it had no illustrations; subsequently many miniatures of very different origin were pasted over the text ad were adapted to its size by various disfiguring additions. Among these, however, is a quantity of bad miniatures, but nevertheless some very fine paintings of the Akbari School. [6]
Of the above three painters, Nadim and Mushfiq [7] (and not Mish Kish, as stated by Dr. Goetz) are mentioned in the Ma’athir; while the third, Qasim is not referred to in the book. There is, however, one Muhammad Qasim whose illustrations can be seen in the British Museum copy of the Shahnama [8], Add. 5600. He may be identical with the aforesaid Qasim who illustrated the Khamsa for the Khan Khanan but, unless further evidence is forthcoming, no final decision can be made. It is also difficult to identify the Madhu of the Ma’athir with the Madhu mentioned by Abu’l Fazl in the ‘A’in, as has been done by Blochmann [9], Martin [10], and Brown [11]. The last named author mentions three Madhus of Akbar’s period: Madhu Khanazad, Madhu Kalan (or senior) and Madhu Khurd (or Junior). He has identified the first, i.e., Madhu Khanazad, with the Madhu of the Ma’athir. But I fear he has overlooked the fact that Madhu Khanazad’s pictures are to be found in the British Museum copy of the Darabnama, which as he himself says, was completed about 1575, while the Madhu of the Ma’athir was still working in the library of the Khan Khanan in 1617 A.D. Did he really resign his service under the Emperor and join that of the Khan Khanan? Probably not, for had this been a fact the author of the Ma’athir must have referred to this in his book. In view of these considerations, I am inclined to keep his identity separate from that of the Madhu of the ‘A’in and also from the two other Madhus whose names appear in the “Akbar Manuscripts”.
Let me here refer to the Khan Khanan’s interest in ‘paper’. It is on record that he was keenly interested in ‘Aks (or tracing) paper and that Mula Muhammad Amin and Mulla Muhammad Husain invented ‘Aks paper of ‘seven colours’. Abri paper was also invented under his patronage. [12]
Now I append an English translation of the notices of painters , gilders and calligraphists, which are given in the Ma’athir-i-Rahimi. I should like to make it clear, however, that my translation is not always literal as, in that case, some of the passages would have hardly been intelligible to the English reader.
A. PAINTERS
1. Miyan Nadim (fil. 753a). He was one of the Khasa Khail and a slave of this Commander-in-Chief. He was the brother of Miyan Fahim whose account we have already given. [13] The service which the latter rendered to India, in general, and to the Khan Khanan, in particular, is too well-known to need repetition here. He (i.e., Nadim) was so skilled in drawing and painting, that since the days of Mani and Bihzad, none has been born who can rival him. He acquired this proficiency in the library and in the service, of this Commander-in-Chief. In fact, the exalted Khan Khanan himself instructed and raised him to this high level. Thus, under the training of the Khan Khanan, he became a peerless master in his art. He breathed his last in the service of his master. He led a comfortable and care-free life, as he was handsomely paid by the Khan Khanan.
2. Bahbud (fol. 753a, b). He was a Khasa Khail of the Khan Khanan. Formerly he was a slave of Mirza Baqir, the illustrious son of Qiblat-ul-Kuttab, Mir ‘Ali, the famous calligraphist. The aforesaid Mirza (Baqir) was skilled in calligraphy and wrote such beautiful Nasta’liq, after the style of his father, that his writings find a place in the Albums of the connoisseurs, and excite much admiration. When he came to India and joined the service of the Khan Khanan, he handed over Bahbud, who is unrivalled in painting and Nasta’liq calligraphy, to the Khan Khanan. He is still alive and passes his time in the Library. He is engaged in adorning, embellishing and copying the manuscripts of the Khan Khanan. In fact, he is peerless in these two arts, in his age. The writer has seen specimens of his painting and calligraphy and is of opinion that undoubtedly he is a ‘Marvel of the Age’.
3. Mawlana Mushfiq (fol. 753b). He is also one of the Khasa Khails. He is an unrivalled painter of his age. He has passed his life, from an early age down to the present day, in the library of the Khan Khanan). Here, he acquired proficiency and obtained this exalted position under the care and in the training of this Chief. He has no rival or equal (in his art). He leads a life of comfort, under the patronage of the Khan Khanan. He works in the library.
4. Madhu (fol. 753b). He is a Hindu painter. In portraiture, drawing, painting and arabesque-design (torrahi) he is the Mani and the Bihzad of his age. He has illustrated most of the manuscripts of this court; he has drawn several court-scenes and painted excellent miniatures, He is employed in the library and holds, besides an allowance, Jagirs also. The writer has met him and has also seen his pictures in the presence of this Commander-in-Chief. Verily, he is peerless (in his art).
5. Mawlana Ibrahim, Naqqash (fol. 754b). He was unrivalled in calligraphy, gilding, book-binding and was skilled as engraver on precious stones. He was much skilled in various arts, and was proficient and unsurpassed in other branches as well. He met the Commander-in-Chief at Ahmadnagar, in the Deccan, and entered his service there. He held the post of a librarian for a number of years. There are many specimens of his painting and gilding in this ‘school of wise men’ i.e., the library. It may be said, without the least exaggeration, that each one of his excellences would have been an embellishment and an adornment for the people of the world. At times, he composed verses also. He had a good aptitude for poetry and was unrivalled among the exponents of this art in India. For reasons, which are not known to the writer, he was deprived of the honour of the service of the Khan Khanan. He travelled, during the remaining periodofhislife, throughout India, in search of a master and patron like the Khan Khanan, but he did not get any. He was always sorry, and regretted his mistake, At last the messenger of Death rolled the carpet of his existence (i.e., he died)……(verses quoted).
B. GILDERS AND ILLUMINATORS
1. Mulla Muhaamad Amin, (fol. 752b), the jadwal-maker. He is one of the famous gilders of Khurasan. For a long time, he was employed in the library attached to the shrine in Imam Riza, the eight Imam, at Mashhad. And was engaged in embellishing the manuscripts of that exalted shrine. When the Uzbegs became masters of Khurasan and they plundered, pillaged and destroyed many of its districts and more particularly Mashhad, the aforesaid Mawlana came, with his sons and grandsons, to India. He took shelter in the library of the Commander-in-Chief and here he removed from his face-through the kindness of the Khan Khanan-the dust of the woes and the suffering of Khurasan. He was appointed on a salary of Rupees 4,000 and his sons also were appointed on high salaries. He was unrivalled in his age in gilding, jadwal-work and ‘aks (i.e., tracing) work. He has adorned and embellished most of the manuscripts of this library. As the Khan Khanan was particularly interested in ‘aks paper, he invented ‘aks paper of seven colours. He made such improvements in ‘aks that none of the ancient or modern masters can even approach him. He obtained so many favours and rewards from his master, during his long service at his court, that it is hardly possible to enumerate them all. He had a fine taste for poetry, He is the inventor of Abri paper also. (Verses quoted).
2. Mulla Muhammad Husain (fol. 753a) of Herat, was the brother of Mulla Muhammad Amin. He was an excellent sakkaf, or book-binder. In ‘aks work, he even excelled Mulla Muhammad Amin. He has been serving in this library since thirty-five years. No one has surpassed him in dirham burd ‘Aks work of seven colours. [14] He has no peer in this art. Besides his salary, he has been given jagir also. To-day, he is the pivot of this library.
C. CALLIGRAPHISTS
1. Mulla ‘Abdur Rahim, Ambarin Qalam (fol. 752b) of Herat. He is one of the celebrated calligraphists of the age and writes a very fine Nasta’liq hand. In his early age when he came from Khurasan to India, he attached himself to he court of his Commander-in-Chief. He made such improvements in calligraphy, under the able guidance of his master, that the fame of his penmanship spread all over India. Most of the manuscripts in the Sarkar (of the Khan Khanan) were in the handwriting of this ‘Wonder of the Age’. He remained in the service of the Khan Khanan for a number of years and was always engaged in acquiring proficiency (in his art). The Khan Khanan, then, presented him before the Vicegerent of God (i.e., Emporer Akbar) and had him appointed in the Royal Court. At present no one excels him, except Mulla Muhammad Husain of Kashmir. He received many favours and rewards from the Khan Khanan, during his service under him, and to-day also he prays for his (i.e., the Khan Khanan’s) good fortune and prosperity. [15]
2. Mulla Muhammad Mu’min (fol. 753a). He is the brother of Mulla Muhammad Husain of Herat. These two brothers have bot, since their arrival in India, gone to any other court or library, except that of this Commander-in-Chief. He wrote very beautiful Nasta’liq. He was the master of his age in jail (bold) calligraphy. There are many bulky volumes in this library which have been transcribed by him. He received an allowance befitting his status. So long as he was alive, he was engaged in the service of the Commander-in-Chief and left it only when he passed away from this transitory world.
3. Mawlana Darwish (753b margin) of Turbat. He was the illustrious son of Mulla ‘Abdus Samad of Turbat. He is known as Darwish ‘Abdus Samad. He wrote a beautiful Ta’liq hand. In fact, he had acquired such proficiency in his art that connoisseurs placed the specimens of his calligraphy in their Albums, mistaking them to be the work of the celebrated Mulla Darwish. The Mulla worked for a long time as a scribe in the Dar’l Insha of the Eight Imam at Mashhad. But the desire of kissing the threshold of this Commander-in-Chief, brought him to India. He acted as a Munshi in this Court, for a number of years. He combined in his the qualities of a good penman with that of a man of refined taste. So long as he was in the service of the Khan Khanan, he was always honoured with rewards. But, when he became old and infirm, he sought the permission of the Commander-in-Chief and retired to Kashan-the abode of the Faithful. But he left his son, Khwaja Muhammad Qasim, at the Court. He was employed on the same work.
The writer met the Mawlana at Kashan, where he was living in comfort, with the money which he has received from his Ka’ba of generosity (i.e., the Khan Khanan), and was engaged in praying for (the welfare of) his ex-patron. He breathed his last at Kashan. So long as he was alive, he always prayed for the Khan Khanan.
4. Shuja’a (fol. 752a). He belonged to Shiraz. He wrote very fine Naksh and Thulth hands, and was the master of his age in that art. At the time when this Commander-in-Chief was engaged in the conquest of Sind, he came from Shiraz to India, in 999 A.H., in company of Aqa Muhammad Shirazi, (who is at present the Mir Bakshi of this Commander-in-Chief) and of Hafidh Taj Shirazi. He got his appointment at the court on the recommendation of Mawlana Shakibi of Isfahan. Shuja’a was soon raised to the exalted position of the Superintendent of the library-a library which is the meeting place of savants, scholars and poets. While in the service, he became such a confidant of the Commander-in-Chief that his associated and companions became jealous of him…. He obtained the title of Shuja’ Bhadur. Now-a-days many talented scholars of this country are convinced of his excellence and ability. So long as he lived in India, he was attached to this Court. He departed to the next world while still in the service of the Khan Khanan. May God pardon his shortcomings!
5. Mawlana Muhammad Baqir (fol. 610b). He is the younger brother of Mawalana Maqsud, a mercer of Kashan. In Nasta’liq calligraphy he not only excelled all his contemporaries in that noble art, but even surpassed the ancient masters of calligraphy… In calligraphy he was a pupil of that skilled ‘Master of the Age’ and the ‘Wonder of the time’ Amir Mu’iz-ud-Din, the famous penman of Kashan… In calligraphy he imitated the style of the ancient masters so perfectly that specimens of his penmanship found a place in the Albums of the experts of calligraphy. He was imprisoned for a year by Shah ‘Abbas….When Shah ‘Abbas came from Qazwin to Kashan, he was released from the prison on theintercessionofthe writer of these lines… After visiting the Ka’ba and Najaf, he returned to Kashan… Next, he came to India and entered the service of Ibrahim ‘Adil Shah (987-1035/1579-1626) at Bijapur. As that exalted ruler is keenly interested in Naksh and Thulth calligraphy, he gave him encouragement and raised his position and status befitting his attainments. He came to ‘Adil Shah in 1006 A.H., and since then, he has been employed there during the last twenty years. In these days, he has, on account of my friendship with him (i.e., the writer), joined the band on the panegyrists of this Commander-in-Chief.
Notes
* A very fine copy of the book, comprising 756 folios, and bearing additions and emendations in the author’s own hand, is preserved in the library of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (No. D. 268). The book is being edited by Shams-ul-‘Ulama Dr. M. Hidyata Husain, Khan Bahadur, in the ------ and is nearing completion. Another copy, containing the Khatima (or conclusion) only, is also preserved in the same library (No. D. 269). I have used both the MSS in preparing notes.
[1] See Shams-ul-‘Ulama Hafidh Nazir Ahmad’s article in the Ma’ arif (Vol. 14, No. 5, pp. 415-480).
[2] In the fifth Regnal year (1610, A.D.), of Jahangir the Khan Khanan presented a beautiful, illustrated copy of Jami’s Yuzuf Zulaikha which was transcribed by the famous calligraphist Mir ‘Alt. The MS. Was appraised at 1,000 Mohurs. (See Memoirs, Rogers and Beveridge, i.p. 168). According to K.B. ‘Abdul Muqtadir, the MS. Is now preserved in the Bankimore Library (Catalogue. ii, pp. 76-80).
[3] K limat-ush-Shu’ara (my MS. Copy), fol. 22b.
[4] Ma’athir-i-Rahimi, (A.S.B. MS., D. 209), fol. 360.
[5] Ibid., (D. 268), fol. 549b.
[6] Eastern Art (Annual), Vol. II., 1980, article on “Indian miniatures in the German Museums and Private Collections”.
[7] The signature of Mushfiq is quite clear. See the reproduction in Arnold and Grohmann’s The Isalmic Book, Plate. 87.
[8] Rieu, Catalogue of Persian MSS., Vol. ii. p. 587a. A miniature, bearing Qasim’s signature had been reproduced by Arnold and Binyon in the Court Painters of the Grand Moghuls, Plate viii.
[9] ‘Ain-i-Akbari, (Blochmann), vol. i., p. 10841.
[10] Miniature Painting and Painters of Persia, India and Turkey, p. 180.
[11] Indian Painting under the Mughals, p. 197.
[12] It is stated in Farhang-i-‘Anand Raj, (p. 1024) that “Abri is a coloured paper”. Shibli Nu’mani, a renowned Indian scholar who for the first time drew attention to the importance of Ma’athir-i-Rahimi, says that “Abri paper was used in binding manuscripts” (Maqalat, p. 149), but this assertion does not seem to be correct.
[13] Miyan Fahim was the son of Barbunaji, a Rathor Rajput of Saruhi, who was killed in an engagement with the Khan Khanan. Fahim (whose original Hindu name is not known to us) fell a prisoner into the hands of Khan Khanan, who took a fancy for him and, brought him up as a son. Fahim gave his life for his master, while fighting Mahabat Khan who had interned the Khan Khanan. He was pious and brave (see Ma’thir-i-Rahimi, fol. 748b,-- and Ma’athir-ul- Umara Vol. i., p. 712)
[14] I have been unable to understand the exact significance of dirham burd. Several Persian scholars, whom I consulted, were also unable to enlighten me on the point.
[15] An account of the life of this calligraphist and a list of the extant specimens of his calligraphy will be found in my Specimen of Muslim Calligraphy in the Ghose Collection, Calcutta, pp. 11, 12.
Published in Islamic Culture: The Hyderabad Quarterly Review, October, 1931, pp. 621-630